Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common childhood disorder associated with school failure, psychiatric comorbidity, and disability. Most cases persist into adulthood, causing occupational failure, criminality, traffic accidents, increased medical health care utilization, and substance use disorders. In adulthood, the cost of ADHD to society is estimated between $77.5 and $115.9 billion annually. Biederman, et. al., “The Effects of Attention-deficit Hyperactivity Disorder on Employment and Household Income,” Medscape Ge. Med. 8(3): 12 (2006). These costs, which are considerable in both human and financial terms, are magnified by the painfully long duration of the disorder and the low efficacy of current treatments.
ADHD is a highly-heritable disorder. Faraone, et. al., “Molecular Genetics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,” Psychiat. Clin. N. Am. 33(1): 159-80 (2010) and Gizer, et. al., “Candidate Gene Studies of ADHD: A Meta-analytic Review,” Hum. Genet. 126(1): 51-90 (2009). Genetic, brain imaging, and animal model studies have implicated numerous candidate genes in its etiology. Faraone, et. al., “Molecular Genetics of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,” Psychiat. Clin. N. Am. 33(1): 159-80 (2010) and Gizer, et. al., “Candidate Gene Studies of ADHD: A Meta-analytic Review,” Hum. Genet. 126(1): 51-90 (2009). In addition, some environmental exposures such as premature birth, low birth weight, and maternal smoking in pregnancy contribute to the etiology of ADHD. Genetic studies also suggest that rare genetic variants can cause ADHD in some patients.
Although medications for ADHD currently exist, some are scheduled substances. In addition, their efficacy is limited, and they are associated with adverse effects that limit their use.
The present invention is directed to overcoming these deficiencies in the art.